Epithelial cells are activated to produce inflammatory mediators, including tumour necrosis factor (TNF-) a, interleukin (IL-) 1b, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and CXCL8 (IL-8) [14, 15]. follicles comprising B lymphocytes and T cells. Furthermore, viral and bacterial infections interfere with the chronic swelling seen in stable COPD and exacerbations via pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Finally, […]